Key Findings from Latest Pew Research on Government Restrictions on Religion around the World Reveal New High
Pew Research Center has been tracking restrictions on religion around the world since 2007. We divide these restrictions into two categories: actions by governments and actions by private individuals or groups. Our tally of restrictions includes laws that prohibit atheism, as well as attempts to coerce people into adopting religious beliefs.
How we did this
Their latest study, the 14th in this annual series, covers events that took place in 198 countries and territories in 2021. Here are the key findings:
Government restrictions on religion reached a new high in 2021. Globally, the median score on our 10-point Government Restrictions Index rose from 2.8 in 2020 to 3.0 in 2021 – the highest level recorded since we began tracking this in 2007. The index tracks 20 measures on government laws, policies and actions that limit religious beliefs and practices, including banning certain faiths; the use of force against religious groups; preferential treatment of some groups over others; and restrictions on preaching, converting or proselytizing.
The most common kinds of government restrictions on religion in 2021 included harassment of religious groups and interference in worship. Governments harassed religious groups in 183 countries, the most on record. The harassment took a wide range of forms, from the use of physical force to derogatory comments made by public officials.
In Nicaragua, for example, top public officials verbally attacked Catholic clergy for supporting pro-democracy protestors. The president and vice president, who is also the first lady, called Catholic priests and bishops “terrorists in cassocks” and “coup-plotters.” A member of the National Assembly, Wilfredo Navarro Moreira, also called a cardinal and several bishops “servants of the devil” in a television interview.
Meanwhile, governments interfered in worship in 163 countries, very close to the peak level of 164 countries reached in 2020. Government interference in worship includes policies or actions that disrupt religious gatherings, deny permits for religious activities, bar access to places of worship, and restrict other rituals.Some cases of government interference in worship in 2021 were related to the COVID-19 pandemic.
For example, three Canadian churches faced government fines for defying lockdown measures, prompting them to file a legal challenge on the grounds that other entities – including restaurants, other businesses and Orthodox Jewish congregations – faced fewer restrictions. In addition, several Canadian clergy faced arrest and fines after holding in-person services in violation of public health measures.
(It’s important to note that our study does not attempt to determine whether particular restrictions are justified or unjustified. Nor do we attempt to analyze the many reasons why restrictions may have arisen in each country. The goal of the tracking is simply to measure restrictions in a transparent and reproducible way, and to identify patterns and trends over time.)
In 2021, China had the world’s highest level of government restrictions on religion, while Nigeria had the highest level of social hostilities involving religion. Social hostilities are actions by private groups or individuals that infringe on the freedom of religious groups.
Globally, social hostilities declined slightly in 2021, with the median score on our Social Hostilities Index falling from 1.8 in 2020 to 1.6. In general, social hostilities have tended to fluctuate more than government restrictions from year to year. But some hostilities also have become deeply entrenched.
In Nigeria, for example, “intercommunal clashes” took place between predominantly Christian farmers and Muslim herders, driven largely by competition for land and natural resources. Both groups have formed armed factions. In August 2021, ethnic Irigwe Christians in Nigeria reportedly killed 27 people and injured 14 when they attacked five buses transporting Muslims across Plateau State, in the North Central part of the country. The following month, Muslim herdsmen reportedly killed 49 people and kidnapped 27 – mostly Christians – in the neighboring state of Kaduna.
Nigeria also experienced continued violence by Boko Haram and Islamic State militants throughout 2021.
Governments in 161 countries provided benefits to religious groups in 2021, even as government officials in most of these countries also carried out harassment (149 countries) or interfered in worship (134 countries). A new feature of our latest report is an attempt to count how many governments provide benefits to religious groups while, at the same time, harassing religious groups or interfering in their worship.
Globally, Government Restrictions on Religion Reached Peak Levels in 2021, While Social Hostilities Went Down
14th annual report includes a look at countries that restrict religious practices and grant benefits to religious groups at the same time
How they did this
In 2021, government restrictions on religion – laws, policies and actions by state officials that limit religious beliefs and practices – reached a new peak globally, according to Pew Research Center’s latest analysis of government restrictions and social hostilities involving religion in 198 countries and territories around the world.
Harassment of religious groups and interference in worship were two of the most common forms of government restrictions worldwide in 2021.
Among the study’s key findings:The global median level of government restrictions on religion ticked up to 3.0 in 2021 from 2.8 in 2020 on the Government Restrictions Index, a 10-point scale of 20 indicators. This was the highest global median score since we began tracking restrictions in 2007.
55 countries (28% of the total) had “high” or “very high” levels of government restrictions in 2021, down slightly from 57 countries (29%), a level reached in 2020, 2019 and 2012. (The median index score for all countries rose anyway, partially because there were slightly more increases in index scores than decreases among the 198 countries and territories analyzed.)
Religious groups faced harassment by governments in 183 countries in 2021, the largest number since the study began. Governments interfered in worship in 163 countries, down slightly from 164 in 2020 but still close to the all-time high.The global median level of social hostilities involving religion – including violence and harassment by private individuals, organizations or groups – fell from 1.8 in 2020 to 1.6 in 2021 on the Social Hostilities Index, a 10-point scale composed of 13 indicators.
43 countries (22% of all studied) had “high” or “very high” levels of social hostilities in 2021, up from 40 countries (20%) in 2020 but still closer to the low point (18%) than to the high point (33%) previously recorded over the course of the study.
This report examines these and other findings from Pew Research Center’s 14th annual study of restrictions on religion around the world, including changes in the index scores at the global and regional levels. It also includes a section showing that governments in most countries simultaneously impose restrictions on religion and grant benefits to religious groups.
Some background on the study
Each year since 2007, Pew Research Center has tracked government restrictions and social hostilities on two 10-point indexes:The Government Restrictions Index (GRI): Government restrictions on religion include laws, policies and actions that regulate and limit religious beliefs and practices. They also include policies that single out certain religious groups or ban certain practices; the granting of benefits to some religious groups but not others; and bureaucratic rules that require religious groups to register to receive benefits.
The Social Hostilities Index (SHI): Social hostilities include actions by private individuals or groups that target religious groups; they also include actions by groups or individuals who use religion to restrict others. The SHI captures events such as religion-related harassment, mob violence, terrorism/militant activity, and hostilities over religious conversions or the wearing of religious symbols and clothing.
Government restrictions have increased gradually over time since 2007, when the global median level on the GRI was 1.8.
Social hostilities – which capture incidents that are more likely to vary from year to year – have seen more fluctuations. On the SHI, the global median score started at 1.0 in 2007, reached a peak of 2.1 in 2017, and fell to 1.6 in 2021.
Countries with ‘high’ and ‘very high’ government restrictions and social hostilities in 2021
Another way to examine restrictions and hostilities involving religion is to look at the number of countries in the “high” or “very high” categories on each index.
In 2021, 28% of countries had “high” or “very high” levels of government restrictions, a slight decline from 29% in 2020.
Meanwhile, fewer countries (22%) had “high” or “very high” levels of social hostilities.
The majority of countries in the study had “moderate” or “low” levels of government restrictions and social hostilities.
In 2021, governments harassed religious groups in 183 countries (92% of countries analyzed), up from 178 countries in 2020. This type of restriction was widespread across all five regions we analyzed. For example, at least one case of government harassment was reported in each of the 20 countries in the Middle East-North Africa region. The same was true for 43 of 45 countries in Europe (96%), 33 of 35 countries in the Americas (94%), 44 of 48 countries in sub-Saharan Africa (92%) and 43 of 50 countries in the Asia-Pacific region (86%).
In the Americas, the government of Nicaragua has targeted Catholic clergy for supporting the country’s pro-democracy movement, according to the U.S. State Department. The president and the vice president (who is also the first lady) called priests and bishops “terrorists in cassocks” and “coup-plotters.” Meanwhile, a member of the National Assembly, Wilfredo Navarro Moreira, called a cardinal and several bishops “servants of the devil” in a television interview.
Governments interfered in worship in 163 countries (82% of countries in the study) in 2021, down from a peak of 164 in 2020. Our definition of government interference in worship includes laws, policies and actions that disrupt religious activities, the withholding of permits for such activities, or denying access to places of worship. This measure also includes restrictions on practices and rituals that may not be specifically tied to worship, such as burial practices and conscientious objection to military service for religious reasons.1
As with government harassment, there was at least one report of government interference in worship in every country in the Middle East-North Africa region, along with 91% of countries in Europe, 81% in sub-Saharan Africa, 80% in the Americas and 70% in Asia and the Pacific.
In 2021, cases of government interference in worship also included the use of force against religious leaders who violated COVID-19 restrictions. In some countries, religious groups claimed (as they had in 2020) that public health measures were unevenly or unfairly applied to their activities and places of worship, particularly in comparison with businesses like shops and restaurants.
In Canada, three churches that were fined for defying lockdown measures in British Columbia filed a legal challenge in 2021 against public health orders that limited religious gatherings, according to the U.S. State Department. The churches contended that there were fewer restrictions on restaurants and other businesses, as well as on Orthodox Jewish synagogues that were allowed to hold indoor services. In addition, several Canadian clergy were fined and arrested after holding in-person services that violated public health measures.
Government restrictions and government benefits
This section analyzes how many countries have governments that provide benefits to religious groups and, at the same time, harass religious groups and interfere in worship.
Here’s what we found in 2021:In 127 countries, governments provided funds or other resources for religious education.
In 107 countries, governments gave funds or other resources for religious buildings, such as for construction, upkeep or maintenance of houses of worship.
In 67 countries, governments provided benefits to clergy, such as salaries, exemptions from military service, or access to certain government jobs (such as military or prison chaplaincies).2
Overall, governments in 161 countries provided at least one of these benefits to religious organizations. Yet, at the same time, governments in most of these countries also harassed religious groups (149 countries) and/or interfered in worship (134 countries).
Our data did not allow us to discern why countries grant benefits to religious groups, for example, whether governments hope that paying the salaries of clergy will lead those clergy to deliver sermons that align with government views. So we cannot say whether specific governments are attempting to manipulate, entice or co-opt religious groups with incentives.
Still, the analysis adds a layer of complexity to the relationship between governments and religious groups. For example, it shows that some governments that provide benefits to clergy also, at the same time, seek to restrict and control these clergy – for example by directly restricting what they can say in sermons.
Funds for religious
In 2021, governments in 127 countries gave money to religious education initiatives in their countries. This included payments for teachers’ salaries at religious schools or subsidies for the schools more broadly.
In 107 countries, governments gave property-related benefits to religious groups in 2021, often through direct subsidies or tax exemptions.
Jump to the following chapters to read more on …Changes in the Government Restrictions Index and the Social Hostilities Index (Chapter 1)
Physical harassment of religious groups around the world (Chapter 2)
Religion-related government restrictions and social hostilities by geographic region (Chapter 3)
Restrictions in the world’s 25 most populous countries (Chapter 4)
Next: 1. Number of countries with ‘very high’ government restrictions stays level in 2021
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